Vedic Age

 Vedic Age

expansion etc. (most accepted theory).

Important Harappan Sites-

�Zend Avesta- an Iranian text records names of Aryan Gods like Indra, varuna etc.

Place/ Excavator Archaeological Finds

Harappa by Dayaram saini 12 granaries –city of granaries, clay figurines of Mother Goddess

Mohenjo-Daro by

R.D. Banerjee Great Granary, Great Bath, bronze image of women dancer, image of bearded man, seal of Pasupathi

Chanhudaro by M.G.Majumdar City with no citadel, no bricks only stones, Ink pot, terracotta model of bullock cart

Kalibangan by Dr.A.Ghosh Fire altars. Decorated bricks, ploughed field, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal.

Lothal by S.R.RAU Dockyard, rice husk, terracotta horse, double burial, bead making centre

Banawali by Dr. Bist No grid planning and drainage system, toy plough.

Surkotada by Jagapati Joshi Bones of horse, pot burials

Dholavira by Dr. Bist Stadium, longest inscription, water harvesting system with unique features, city divided

Hittitte inscription in Anatolia

Kassitte inscription in Iraq and Mittani inscription in Syria.

About Aryans-

They arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate.

The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta) Indus +5 + Ghaggar

The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC). It is also called as Rigvedic period, as it is believed that it is being related to this period.

The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the Later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC). Later Vedas like Yajurveda,  Samaveda and Atharveda were composed during this period.

The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron.

Categories Early Vedic Period (1500 B.C to 1000B.C) Later vedic period (1000 B.C to 600 B.C)

Polity The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana

However, he did not possess unlimited powers for, he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies

Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.

The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha.

Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.

A few non-monarchical states (ganas) are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyeshta. In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed.

Women were no longer permitted to sit in the Sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas.

The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful.

Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term Rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period.

The King performed the Rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

Kings started assuming high sounding titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Sarvbhumi, Virat.

During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer was called Sangrihitri.

The king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war; the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Economy Mainly pastoral, agriculture was secondary.

The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life.

The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation.

The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'.

The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts.

The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal-working was known.

Trade was scarce mostly through barter.

Pottery associated- Painted Grey Ware. The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier sugarcane.

Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property.

Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley.

Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.

New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewelers, dyers and potters.

Trade was also boosted. However, Barter System persist.

Society Kinship was the basis of social structure.

People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called Jana.

Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis.

The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda.

It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha.

Women

The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived.

We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda.

The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns.

Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna system

Varna was the term used for color and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.

The dasas and Dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras.

The tribal society was divided into 3 groups- warriors (Kshatriya), priests (Brahmins) and Vaishyas.

The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period.

In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp The later Vedic society came to be divided into 4 varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each Varna was assigned with its duty.

All the 3 higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.

The fourth Varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with it began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras.

Gotra System:

The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times.

Literally, it means the cow-pen or place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept.

People began to practice gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System:

Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times.

In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas:

Brahmachari or student,

Grihastha or householder,

Vanaprastha or partial retirement and

Sanyasa or complete retirement from the world.

But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times.

4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad

Religion Did not believe in idol worship

Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God

Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories -Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial

Indra, Agni, Varuna were important Gods

Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, Aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods.

People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu.

Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship. The two outstanding Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance.

On the other hand, Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon.

Rudra, the God of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.

Some signs of idolatry are noticed

Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity).

The mode of worship changed considerably.

Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods.

Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character.

The guests were known as the Goghna or one who was fed on cattle.

The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

Term Meaning

Sabha Assembly of Brahmans and elders

Samiti Assembly of Commoners

Vidhata For war booty distribution

Gana Highest Advisory body

Unit Head

Kula/ Family Kulapa

Grama (Village) Gramani

Vis (Clan) Vispati

Jana (People) Gopa/Gopati

Rashtra (the Country) Rajan

Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita Chief Priest, also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani Supreme Commander of army

Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land

Jivagribha Police Officer

Spasas/ Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers

Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes

Bhagadugha Revenue collector

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Mahishi Chief Queen

Suta Charioteer and court minstrel

�Vedic Literature:

Sruti means revealed ones- All four vedas/samhitas

Smriti- commentaries on 4 vedas-Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, 6 vedangas and 4 upavedas.

Rig Veda First text in world literature.

Theme is prayer addressed to gods.

Gayatri mantra part of it.

1017 hymns into 10 mandalas.

Reciter called hotri

Sama Veda First text to deal with Indian music.

Main theme is Chchedus.

Reciter called Udgatar.

It deals with rhythm and sound of each hymn.

Yajur Veda Deals with rituals and ceremonies

Reciter called Adhvaryu

Atharva Veda By non-Aryans

Themes witchcraft, sorcery.

Deals with Ayurveda, Ganithashastra. Rekhaganita

Brahmin never recites this.

Most secular of all the vedas.

Brahmanas:

Related to conduct of various ceremonies. It is a prose version of the Vedas.

108 in number, Satapatha Brahmana most famous dealing with rituals connected with Agricultural production.

Gopada Brahmana- most voluminous.

Aithreya Brahmana- about Viswamitra and non-aryan tribes.

Aranyakas:

Forest texts written mainly for hermits and students living in jungle.

Concluding portions of Brahmanas.

Consider as the link between Brahmana and Upanishad.

Upanishads:

108 in number also known as Vedantas.

Deals with metaphysics

Katho Upanishad Dialogue between Nachiketa and yama on concept of death.

Eso Upanishad Deals with creation

Jabala Upanishad Varna ashrama dharmas

Brihadaranyko Upanishad Yannavalkya author deals with transmigration of souls.

Mundako Upanishad Satyameva Jayate adopted from this

Chandogya Upanishad Childhood of Krishna in detail.

Keno Upanishad Talks about uma or Parvati

Swetas swataro Upanishad Defines shiva for first time.

Vedangas:

Nirukta/Etymology Study of origin of words.

Shiksha/ Phonetics Oldest deals with pronunciation.

Chehendus/Metre Related to recitation

Vyakarna/Grammar Written by Panini

Kalpa/Rituals Basis of Indian law.

Dharmashastras- deals with household ceremonies.

Sulvasutras- deals with rekhaganita (Geometry).

Srutasutras-deals with social ceremonies (marriage, birth).

Jyotisha/ Astronomy Study of movement of planets and

understanding events in life.

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Upavedas:

Upavedas Associated with

Dhanurveda (Warfare). Rig Veda

Gandhavra Veda (Music) Sama Veda

Sthapatyaveda (Architecture) Yajur Veda

Ayurveda (Medicine) Atharva Veda